Consolidated list of wetlands surveyed in the state of Tamil Nadu for Project ' Inland Wetlands of India ' - SACON/GOI/UNDP

Freshwater Fishes of Peninsular India. R J Ranjit Daniels (2002) Universities Press (India) Pvt Ltd, Hyderabad, pp288 + 75 colour plates.

The literature available on the freshwater fishes of India is too technical for students and non-specialists. Further, many of the standard reference books are not readily available in libraries and book stalls. When available, the prices are unaffordable to the average Indian student. There is then a crying need for field guides written in a style accessible to students and non-specialists. Our biology education could also greatly benefit from students undertaking first hand studies of organisms in their own surroundings addressing issues of scientific interest. This book is an attempt to provide such easily accessible information and throw up ideas for field oriented student projects.

A total of 75 taxa of fishes that commonly inhabit freshwaters of peninsular India have been described in the book. Most of these are native Indian fish. A few species whose natural distribution lies outside peninsular India but are widespread due to introductions, aqua culture and aquarium trade have also been included.

With the exception of a few taxa that are based on the early works of Francis Hamilton and Francis Day, the illustrations are based on published and unpublished photographs of live, freshly killed and preserved specimens. The black and white illustrations included in the text depict the variations between the sexes, adults and juveniles. Around 50 taxa related to those described have also been illustrated.

Although common English and local names are available for most of the freshwater fishes that we know in India, the use of scientific nomenclature is a necessity for the sake of consistency and cross-referencing. Classification and scientific nomenclature of fishes, as with many other groups of organisms, has remained in flux with rather frequent changes. The most recent systematic scheme provided in Nelson (1994) for the world’s fishes has been adopted while classifying the 75 taxa described in this book. Specific status and nomenclature of the described taxa are after Talwar and Jhingran (1991) despite the major taxonomic revisions that have taken place since it was published. Differences in scientific nomenclature adopted by Talwar and Jhingran (1991), Jayaram (1999) and Menon (1999) are highlighted in the Appendix.

Amphibians are considered to be the best indicators of environmental health. Decline in amphibian populations indicates ecosystem deterioration that might affect a wider spectrum of the earth's biological diversity. During the last 12 years there has been a great concern, worldwide, about the rapid decline in amphibian populations. Many reasons have been attributed to the loss of amphibians including habitat loss, UV-B radiation, global warming, toxic chemicals, pathogens that destroy eggs and larval stages, direct harvest and others. Of these, loss of habitat seems to be the most significant factor, at least in tropical countries.

In this book, 72 species of Indian amphibians including caecilians have been described. These amphibians are those that are common and widely distributed in peninsular India and represent about one third of all amphibian species known in India. The descriptions are simple and contain, although limited, details of other closely related species, taking the actual number of amphibian species discussed to well over 100. That the life histories, larval stages and calls of many species are still not known should in itself be a challenge to students interested in the field study of amphibians.

Care has been taken in illustrating the book using photographs and drawings that are accurate. The many illustrations provided throughout the species accounts and the illustrated keys should make it possible for students and amateur naturalists to identify amphibians in the field without much difficulty. To avoid the confusion that might arise from scientific names that keep changing, those names that have been the most consistently used in India have been retained in this book. However, all recent changes have been included as synonyms. Additionally, an appendix that lists out all the known species of Indian amphibians (at the time that the book was written) has been provided.

Urban marshes are amongst the most abused of wetlands throughout the world. Of the various forms of abuse, dumping garbage and the release of untreated sewage water into marshes are probably the worst, as they pose human health hazards, pollute the soil, water and air, thereby endangering a wide range of bio diversity and spoil the natural beauty of the landscape. The Pallikarnai Marsh in the outskirts of the City of Chennai is one such marsh that has suffered abuse of various sorts. Unlike other marshes in Tamil Nadu, the Pallikarnai Marsh is a wetland naturally created by the backwaters of the Bay of Bengal. Huge inflow of storm water during the northeast monsoon over hundreds of years has made the marsh a unique mix of freshwater (in the north) and brackish-estuarine water in the south. This has been inferred by the location and spread of the Marsh and by the nature of the flora and fauna, including sub-fossilised molluscs. Unfortunately, this Marsh that had spread over 5000 ha (50 km²) some 30 years ago is today been reduced to a mere 550 ha – a 90% reduction in extent. Much of the loss of the original extent has been due to a variety of development including metropolitan railway and institutional complexes. Most distressing is the use of the marsh as an outlet of untreated sewage and as a dump for garbage that is not entirely biodegradable. The overall change in the extent and orientation of the Marsh has led to stagnation of polluted water that emits foul smell. Added to this, a recent study has identified the presence of heavy metals including traces of mercury. Mass death of frogs, fish and sometimes water birds has been noticed in and around the Marsh. The exact cause of death of these animals is being analysed by the Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore.

Despite the degradation, recent surveys of the biodiversity of the marsh have shown that there are more than 45 species of fish including the endangered Puntius dorsalis, 10 species of frogs, 21 species of reptiles (including the skink Lygsoma albopunctata a recent addition to Tamil Nadu’s reptilian fauna), around 110 species of birds including the rare Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) and 10 species of mammals. The ibis is seen in large flocks of 300-500 birds enhancing the ecological value of the Marsh to that of an internationally Important Bird Area.   Besides the biodiversity richness, the Pallikarnai Marsh has immense ecosystem service value. It is the main outlet of the storm water that drains Madipakkam, Velachery, Taramani and the neighbouring suburbs. It has been a source of drinking water to people in the immediate neighbourhood. It has also been used for contract fishing year after year. The lush growth of Typha reeds has provided nesting habitat for a number of birds and has also served as bio-filter for the storm water that drains into the sea. 

The above factors have been recognised, though at a somewhat late stage of the Marsh’s history, and it has been notified by the Kancheepuram District Collector (vide DO Rc 32444/2001/N2, Dated 1.11.2002) that the last stretch of c. 550 ha of the Marsh that is still left be declared a ‘Reserved Land’. The Tamil Nadu Forest Department has been entrusted with the management of the Marsh (ref No WL5/39928/99 dated 21.2.2003). Instructions have also been given to the agencies involved in the sewage and garbage dumping to contain the same (Letter No ETI/TNPCB/00006/2002 dated 8.11.2002). In addition to these, Care Earth has suggested measures that will restore the Marsh through proper drainage and the development of a green belt in the areas where the garbage has been dumped. The following are the main recommendations for the eco-restoration of the Pallikarnai Marsh.

1.      Improvement of the watershed with bunds, channels and corridors

2.      Fencing and retaining walls (natural and artificial) wherever appropriate and essential

3.      Development of eco-tourist park

4.      Dredging for restoring the drainage

5.      Improvement of the habitat by the removal of weeds and selective planting of indigenous trees

6.      Curtailing the further entry of waste water

Summary of the study ‘Forest Reserves as Refugia for Human Impacted Biodiversity: A Case Study of the Forest Dynamics Plot in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, India’

Key aspects of the ecological history of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary

Until 1880, Mudumalai forests were intensively exploited for teak trees (Tectona grandis) at the rate of 3000 trees per year. Other species that were in demand included Dalbergia latifolia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Grewia tiliifolia, Lagerstroemia microcarpa and Terminalia tomentosa (=T.crenulata). This was largely to meet the demands of townships in Nilgiris and to a limited extent the boat building activities on the west coast. The Public Works Department was able to sustain the demand by opening up newer areas for felling. Intense fellings resulted in increase of grasslands and severe fires.
Beginning 1880, as most of the timber from accessible areas had to be felled, scarcity of this resource was setting in – a pattern that soon became typical for south India. For instance, even in the neighbouring Baramahal tract, forests were denuded systematically under the guise of leases to meet demands imposed by the creation of railway networks. A good deal of the oldest and best Dalbergia latifolia trees was destroyed by railway contractors. The demand was so large that the trees could not be marked fast enough that they were simply felled. By 1881, the railways had consumed 68,420 tons of wood, of which 15,450 tons were drawn from the leased and government forests of the Malabar and Coimbatore region in which the Mudumalai forests are located.
Despite measures being taken to sustain tree species chiefly Tectona grandis, by end 1900 there were very few mature trees left in the forest. The increment of trees was very slow, and there was practically no regeneration. Since the demand continued unabated, other hardwood trees of the forests were sequentially exploited.
Terminalia tomentosa (=T.crenulata) which was the favoured species for railway sleepers was extracted from the Mudumalai forests. By 1900 the composition of the forests had so changed that T. tomentosa became the dominant species (20,000 trees were ready for felling).
In the year 1940, approximately 23 sq.miles of the forests were constituted to form the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (vide G. O. No.193 dt. Jan 27, 1940). In the post-independence period, when Nilgiris taluk was part of the state of Tamil Nadu, the sanctuary was expanded to 321.70sq km in 1958.
The principal inhabitants of the forests
The principal inhabitants of the forests are Betta Kurumbas, Jenu nayakas or Shola nayakas, Moundadan and Wynaadan Chettis and the Paniyars. Most literature on the principal castes and tribes of Mudumalai accords seemingly greater importance to the Chettis – since they are the settled agriculturists of the landscape.
The relationship that the Kurumbas, Moundadan Chettis and Paniyars have to their landscape is unique and distinct. The Betta Kurumbas and Jenu Kurumbas have a custodial relationship to the Mudumalai forest – and this is repeatedly asserted by them. The Kurumbas very proudly declare that their landscape divisions are sacred and thereby more valid. The Kurumbas as with any other typical forest dwellers attribute a number of values to the forests and thereby utilise a range of services that the landscape provides.
The Chettis consider themselves to be the owners / managers of the landscape. Agriculture being their chief occupation they are keener on expanding the scope of their operations. The Paniyars at this point of time are limited to relate to the landscape like the Chettis since they do not envision an independent existence.

Patterns of resource use

There is a marked preference for certain plant species by humans. These are as follows:

• Xeromphis spinosa, Casearia esculenta, Diospyros montana and Syzigium cumini along with Randia dumetorum and two unidentified climbers are used as fish bait by Kurumbas and Paniyars. By using stems, leaves and mud, a small part of the stream is partitioned and into this, a coarse paste of the fruits of Xeromphis spinosa/Casearia esculenta or Randia dumertorum is mixed as a tranquiliser. Similar use is made of leaves of Diospyros montana and the bark of Sygizium cumini. In view of the restrictions, the tribals have started using Crotalaria walkeri as the substitute species. This is extensively grown in their lands and is also widely seen in areas adjoining the sanctuary.
  
• Also of considerable importance to the tribals is Schleichera oleosa from which oil is extracted. This practice has currently been abandoned as the Kurumbas estimate that the species has become scarce. Ziziphus jujuba is one other species from which oil is extracted.
  
• Although most species are used as firewood at the rate of approximately 30 kilograms / household for three days, the most preferred species is Anogeissus latifolia followed by Xeromphis spinosa. Enclosures for fuelwood in the hamlets are commonly of the dimension 6 X 5 X 6 ft, with a potential storage capacity of 180- 200 cu ft. For special occasions such as weddings, about 400 kilograms of wood is used as fuel. Schrebera swietenioides is the least preferred species for fuel wood.
  
• Shorea roxburghii and Canarium strictum are the species that are used in rituals and worship by the Kurumbas. In addition, a species locally known as “koovai”, the specimen of which could not be collected, is considered sacred and used in worship.
  
• Tectona grandis, Lagerstroemia microcarpa, Kydia calycina, Terminalia tomentosa (=T.crenulata) and Bambusa arundinacea are used for construction of houses and allied structures. The most preferred however is Cassia fistula. Albizia odoratissima and Artocarpus integrifolius are used for making doors and windows etc.
  
• Although agricultural implements are made out of Dalbergia latifolia, of special preference are Randia dumetorum (for the light weight and durability) and Grewia tiliifolia (used for making handles of sickles and shovels). Inhabitants in Benne, use two other species viz. Kasayamara and Ullaimara for agricultural implements. Although the specimens could not be collected, the tribals state that these two species are found only in the shola forests.
  
• Certain plant species are attributed with greater preference for their NTFP values. For instance, the Jenu Naickers accord greater importance to, Ficus spp, Canarium strictum, Terminalia bellirica and Artocarpus integrifolius since they host the bee-hives. Similarly, the Paniyars have a greater preference for Persea macarantha (Gulmavu) which is sold as spice, Terminalia chebula which is sold as medicine and Acacia sinuata which is used as soap.
  
• To the Kurumbas, Randia tamilnadensis (Bonugirikaya) is a species for mitigating food crisis. The fruits are often meal-substitutes. The inhabitants have also a great fondness for the flowers and shoots of Bambusa arundinacea (last flowering season was the year 1973)..
  
• Of medicinal value to the inhabitants are the following species: Garuga pinnata and Ziziphus spp for tooth ailments, Terminalia chebula for coughs and colds, and Anogeissus latifolia for stomach aches. Schleichera oleosa is used for treating scabies and sores.
  
• Of the major inhabitants of the study area, only the Moundadan Chettis cremate the dead. Olea dioica is the species that is exclusively used for this.
  
• The only naturally occurring species that is used as a prop in the cultivation of pepper is Erythrina indica (Murukku mara).
  
• In addition to Helicteres isora, Kurumbas in the Benne region use Sterculia vilosa for obtaining fibre.
  

Dynamics of the human impacted species

When these patterns are analysed within the private holdings that were studied, and compared with that of the FDP, the following trends emerge:

• 16 plant species that are intensively used or impacted (score of > 3) by humans, elephants and other herbivores, with only 6 of the species being exclusively used by humans. .
  
• There is no established pattern to support the assumption that the most abundant species have a higher use value.
  
• The 0.8 ha.of the land under private possession harboured 115 individuals representing 28 naturally occurring plant species, which is comparable to the average 30 species/ha in the 50 ha plot. The two most dominant species are Grewia tiliifolia and Terminalia crenulata.
  
• The diversity of plant species, as measured using Shanon-Weiner Index, in the private lands is 2.98 as compared to 1.31 in dry deciduous forests of Mudumalai, suggesting that in lands managed by humans, the abundance of species is more evenly distributed (89%).
  
• Although size distribution is considered a poor predictor of population performance it may serve as an indicator of sustainable management, if any.
  
• There has been a distinct preference for maintaining large sized trees in the private lands. The average girth being 152.89 (n = 115, 116.34 SD) i.e. an average diameter of 48.7 cm at breast height.
  
• While looking at the distribution of size classes in the private lands there are on an average, 62 stems in the girth class of 126 cm and above, which is comparable to the 70 stems of this girth class/hectare in the FDP (Condit et al 1996).
  
• However, there is > 50% loss of trees (> 30 cm GBH) in these plots when compared to the 50 ha. FDP. This suggests that trees below a particular size class are virtually absent in the private lands. Of the 7 quadrats, three were completely cleared of the undergrowth and 4 had coffee plantations.
  
• In the private lands, 44 stems were above the average GBH of 152. 89 cm. This included a totemic species of the Chettis viz. Ficus spp with a GBH of 800 cm. Trees of such girth are virtually absent in the FDP. .
  The private lands were also systematically rid of two species viz. Kydia calycina and Helicteres isora.
  

Project site/location:

1.      Magarel - Kancheepuram block

2.      Vengacheri - Uthiramerur block

3.      Kannanthangal (Maduramangalam) - Sriperumbudur block

Kannanthangal (Kanthancheri) - Sriperumbudur block (to be considered)

Time frame: 5 years starting 2002 (2002-2006)

Definition: "Watershed (or catchment) is a geographic area that drains to a common point, which makes it an ideal planning unit for conservation of soil and water". A watershed may comprise of one or several villages, contain both arable and non-arable lands, various categories of land holdings and farmers whose actions may impact on each others' interests. The watershed approach enables a holistic development of agriculture and allied activities in the area taking into account various kinds of land-use based on crops, horticulture, agro-forestry, silvi-pasture and forests.

Focus: On both cultivated rainfed land and uncultivated land under ownership of private land owners, panchayat, revenue department, etc.

Increasing food production as well as diversifying existing farming system particularly of small and marginal farmers through

1. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
2. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)
3. Farming Systems Approach (FSA)
4. Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA)
5. Agro-forestry
6. Agri-horticulture
7. Silvi-pasture
8. Animal husbandry etc.

Main objectives:

• Conservation, development and sustainable management of natural resources including their use
• Enhancement of agricultural productivity and production in a sustainable manner
• Restoration of ecological balance in the degraded and fragile rainfed ecosystems by greening these areas through appropriate mix of trees, shrubs and grasses
• Reduction in regional disparity between irrigated and rain-fed areas
• Creation of sustained employment opportunities for the rural community including the landless

Process:

Step I: Demarcation of watershed boundaries - the boundary of the watershed may be demarcated. The list of farmers whose lands are located in the micro-watershed (500 ha) may be prepared using village level land records.

Step II: Community mobilisation and Awareness building

Step III: Identification of village level community organisers - village-based social workers, youth clubs, mahila mandals, anganwadi, etc.

Step IV: Organisation of Self Help Groups - 15-20 members each.

Step V: Organisation of User Groups - land owners within the identified watershed.

Step VI: Constitution of Watershed Association 

Step VII: Orientation and training of watershed level participants - selected members of WA, SHG and UG.

Step VIII: Constitution of Watershed Committee

Forest Land Resources: Watersheds that encompass forest lands should adopt the following guidelines:

• Technical sanction of the treatment/intervention plans should be given to the DFO concerned.
  
• The programme should as far as possible be implemented by the Village Forest Committees existing in the area. If no such committee exists, formation of such should be encouraged.

• ·Village Forest Committees should be treated on par with the Watershed Committee (WC).
  
• The micro-watershed development plan for the forest areas should be in conformity with the Forest Conservation Act.
  
• A forest official should invariably be included as a member of the Watershed Development Team (WDT).

Improving the quality of life of rural women through self help groups in Uthiramerur Block of Kancheepuram District

Despite the proximity to the city of Chennai, certain administrative blocks in the district of Kancheepuram continue to be poorly developed for certain sections of the society.  One such block is Uthiramerur which largely thrives on agriculture.  The major crops are paddy, groundnut and sugarcane.  The Cheyyar river flows through the block and in many ways is the lifeline for the rainfed farmers of the block.

One major cluster of villages along the Cheyyar is Vengachery – Adavapakkam.  While the upper caste groups of this cluster are the landowners, the Scheduled Caste population have a range of livelihoods to support themselves.  This population is relegated to living in colonies that are exclusive to them.  Very few of them own lands and the land holdings are less than 3 acres. 

Even within this population, the women are most marginalized. They work for  long hours, performing multiple tasks but are completely devoid of property rights.  The average yearly income of each woman is Rs.8,000 (US$ 150-200) and it is this money that ensures availability of food for the home, as the money that the man earns is diverted to the consumption of alcohol.

In 2002, these women decided to take charge of the situation and protested against the brewing and sale of alcohol in their village. When ‘proper channels and procedures’ did not do them justice, they destroyed the alcohol units.  In retaliation, the cartel of men who were in the alcohol business make sure that none of the developmental projects would be implemented in these villages. 

To address the above concerns, CARE EARTH through its community organization programme has been mobilizing women into self-help groups. After a year’s work largely focusing on group activities, 13 self help groups have been formed in this village cluster.  These groups currently have savings ranging from Rs.12,000 – Rs.30,000 per group.  The women who initially planned to use this money only to meet household emergencies, are now interested in diverting the same for an enterprise.  To this end, a programme has been commenced in the year 2004, to develop a  nursery of indigenous and threatened plants.  The groups have been encouraged to collect the seeds of some of the locally found palms and develop about 3000 saplings. The process of establishing market linkages has been initiated.  It is hoped that this initiative while ensuring incomes for the women would also aid local level conservation.